Providing a Home for a Reptile

Many reptiles appear nervous and insecure in captivity. This can be reduced by providing appropriate cage “furniture” and hiding spaces. Arboreal species (those that live in trees) should be given horizontal and vertical tree branches or other appropriate climbing material. Terrestrial species (those that live on the ground) usually require more horizontal space. Many terrestrial species, as well as those that like to dig or burrow, require hiding places such as boxes, tree trunks, rocks, or other objects. For some species, a solid black border painted on the glass wall 8 inches (20 centimeters) from the cage bottom provides added security.

Some species of reptiles are solitary and prefer to be housed alone. Housing animals of the same species together may sometimes be possible; however, groups should not include more than 1 male because males of the same species may become aggressive toward each other. Experienced reptile owners may be able to create an enclosure suitable for housing several compatible species together. Community housing of highly social species that are active during the day often requires several stations for basking (laying out under a heat or ultraviolet light bulb), eating, and drinking that are all out of the view of dominant animals from the same species and of any human observers. Overcrowding must be avoided to reduce stress and competition for food, water, basking sites, and mates. Aggressive species may have to be separated during feeding to prevent injury to cage mates. Fighting can be reduced significantly by housing only compatible species together.

The floor of the enclosure should be covered with a material that is disposable, inexpensive, nontoxic, and nonabrasive. The best ground coverings, or substrates, are those that are least likely to support the growth of infectious organisms (such as bacteria, fungi, and parasites) and that help make cage cleaning easy. Newspaper, commercial recycled paper-based bedding, peat moss, potting soil, aspen shavings, cypress mulch, walnut bedding, large rocks, alfalfa pellets, and artificial turf have all been used successfully as substrate for snakes. Sand, gravel, and corncob are generally not recommended, because they are ingested easily and can block reptiles’ gastrointestinal tracts. Corncob also tends to get moldy when wet. Cedar and pine shavings should not be used, because they contain odor-emitting oils that may cause both breathing and neurologic problems in reptiles. In general, snakes should not be fed in their enclosures on “loose” substrates such as shavings, walnut bedding, or mulch because these substrates may easily be ingested accidentally when the snake is eating and may lead to gastrointestinal tract blockage. One solution is to remove the snake from its usual cage and feed it in a separate cage on newspaper. This approach results in conditioned behavior that may decrease feeding-frenzy activity in large snakes when approached in their usual (nonfeeding) cage.

Ease of cleaning is a good reason to choose a less complicated substrate. To minimize parasites, bacteria, and other organisms that cause disease, it is essential to be able to clean the enclosure thoroughly and frequently. Newspaper is the substrate of choice for sick reptiles because it is inexpensive, easy to clean, and allows regurgitated material or droppings to be easily observed.

The humidity level necessary for a particular reptile also determines substrate choice. Cypress mulch can hold moisture and is resistant to mold. Soil and peat moss hold moisture and allow burrowing. Rocks (larger than the pet’s head to prevent accidental ingestion) and recycled pelleted paper bedding also enable burrowing but are drier. Smaller environments within an enclosure can provide areas of increased humidity without creating high humidity levels in the entire cage.

Potting soil, commercially available leaf litter, and smaller amounts of sand are appropriate substrates for many species of lizards, turtles, and tortoises. Alfalfa pellets (common rabbit pellets) are also useful bedding for turtles and tortoises. The pellets are inexpensive and easy to clean—and they are nutritious if eaten!

Aquatic turtles and crocodilians can be maintained on a combination of sand, gravel, and cement substrates if basking areas are provided. Gravel should be large enough that it cannot be eaten.

Most reptiles are ectotherms (often called “cold-blooded” animals) and control their body temperatures by moving to different places in their environments. In their natural habitat, they are quite good at keeping their body temperature within a relatively narrow range compared with the outside temperature. To control daily changes in body temperature, many reptiles seek out cool or warm areas. For example, a reptile might bask on a rock that has been warmed by the sun to raise its body temperature.

The cage or enclosure used to house reptiles should provide a range of temperatures (within the preferred temperature range for each species) from one end of the enclosure to the other to keep the occupants healthy. A range of temperatures also helps with digestion, keeps their immune systems healthy, and increases the effectiveness of certain drugs. Appropriate enclosure temperature ranges vary according to reptile species. Tropical species generally prefer temperatures of 80°F to 100°F (27°C to 38°C) and temperate species prefer 68°F to 95°F (20°C to 35°C). Semiaquatic turtles prefer a slightly lower range. The temperature in the enclosure must be carefully monitored; temperatures that exceed the upper limits by only 10°F may prove deadly for some species of reptiles.

Most reptiles prefer overhead bulbs as the source of heat and light for basking, perhaps because these provide heat and light in a way most similar to their normal environment. Basking lights are preferred for turtles, tortoises, and lizards. Basking lights are preferred for turtles, tortoises, and lizards. Basking lights can be an incandescent bulb, infrared device, mercury vapor lamp (providing both heat and UV light), or a ceramic bulb heat emitter. Heat lamps should be used with extreme caution because overheating is common. These sources should all be protected from direct contact with reptiles and placed more than 18 inches (45 centimeters) from the ground covering. Heat sources should be attached to programmable thermostats that automatically turn on and off the heat when the temperature gets too cool or too hot, respectively. In addition, all enclosures should have at least 2 thermometers (one in the cool end, away from the heat source, and the other in the warm end, nearest the heat source) to ensure maintenance of the species-specific recommended temperature range. Under-tank heaters are also useful heat sources for lizards and snakes. When used with a basking light, under-tank heaters can provide heat at night as well as during the day. However, under-tank heaters should cover no more than 30% of the available cage space to allow reptiles to move out of the heat, and they should be designed specifically for use with reptile tanks.

Mercury vapor lamps are very good basking lights and also provide some ultraviolet light—the type found in natural sunlight—that is necessary for reptile health (see Lighting Requirements, below). Infrared panels are produced in many sizes and can easily be attached to the roof of the cage to radiate heat downward. Infrared heaters are unique because they heat objects in their path without overheating the enclosure. Whatever basking light or heater you use, always check the temperature just above the substrate, where the pet is sitting, to ensure it is the correct basking temperature for that species. “Hot rocks” are not recommended because the heat they provide is not consistent and may cause burns.

Reptiles become inactive at lower temperatures and may go into a state of hibernation. This is a normal seasonal event in the wild for many nontropical species, and it promotes the best conditions for reproduction. However, hibernation of pet species is not generally recommended unless they are breeding and should never be attempted with an ill reptile because its immune system is not as strong during seasonal changes and lower temperatures. Tropical species may decrease their level of activity because of minor temperature changes, but they should not be hibernated. Temperature extremes and fast changes of temperature should be avoided. You should ask your veterinarian or the person from whom you obtained the reptile about the proper temperature range and seasonal hibernation requirements for your pet.

Feeding behavior, activity, and to a lesser extent, reproduction in reptiles, are improved with full-spectrum light, which has qualities similar to natural sunlight and includes ultraviolet (UV) rays. Fluorescent bulbs that produce UVB wavelengths in the range of 290 to 320 nanometers are the most appropriate for reptile enclosures. Mercury vapor lamps can also provide ultraviolet light.

Providing the proper ultraviolet spectrum is essential to maintain healthy reptilian skin. UV light is essential in many species to making vitamin D3 in their skin, which then enables them to absorb dietary calcium. Exposure to unfiltered sunlight is the best form of ultraviolet light available, but sunlight filtered through most glass or plastic contains almost no ultraviolet rays. Ultraviolet-producing bulbs should be placed near resting or basking areas so the reptile can obtain adequate ultraviolet light exposure. Typical ultraviolet-producing lights should be within 18 inches of resting or basking areas, and mercury vapor lamps can be several feet away. Using a black light in combination with full-spectrum bulbs may promote reproductive activity in lizards but does not significantly increase ultraviolet B (UVB) light exposure. Even the best full‑spectrum bulbs are a poor substitute for natural sunlight. A species-appropriate supplement that contains vitamin D₃ may be necessary ( see Nutrient Requirements).

The daily cycle of light and darkness, called the photoperiod, affects the behavior and physical functions of all animals. Photoperiod requirements for reptiles vary based on daily and yearly activity cycles in the wild in response to changes in natural light. For pet reptiles, however, changes in light cycles are generally not required unless they are breeding. Non-breeding pet reptiles may be kept under constant light cycles all year round. However, changes in photoperiod are generally helpful for breeding animals to reproduce successfully and depend on where reptiles originate. Changes in photoperiod from about 10 hours of daylight during the winter to about 14 hours of daylight during the summer are common in many tropical and subtropical areas, whereas temperate areas experience changes in photoperiod ranging from about 8 hours of daylight during winter to about 16 hours during summer.

Semiaquatic reptiles, those that naturally live and grow near and in water, must be able to submerge themselves completely in water. Feeding, reproduction, and social interaction occur under water in many species. Filtering and aerating the water helps lower the level of toxic organic wastes and disease-causing organisms. For saltwater species, the salinity (level of salt) in the water should be carefully monitored. Water pH for some species of aquatic turtles may need to be adjusted to match their natural habitat.

Requirements for water intake are linked to the availability of water in the reptile’s natural habitat. Aquatic and semiaquatic reptiles need more water, whereas species from drier environments tend to conserve water. It is very important that water be available at all times to avoid dehydration. Many species lose water through the skin when deprived of soaking areas; absorbing water through the skin has also been documented. Many species drink readily from pools or bowls, but a number of small lizards (such as anoles and true chameleons) drink by lapping water droplets that accumulate through condensation. Misting the environment or creating a drip system provides options for water intake. Ask your veterinarian or reptile breeder the best way to ensure that your reptile is getting enough water.

The humidity should mimic that of the natural environment of the reptile. Excessively low humidity (less than 35%) can result in dry skin and abnormal skin shedding, especially in species that are not used to a dry environment. Excessively high humidity (greater than 70%) can result in skin infections in some species. ( See table Reptile Housing Requirements.) Humidity gauges (called hygrometers) should be used in enclosures to monitor humidity to ensure it is within the appropriate, species-specific range. Speak to your veterinarian to learn what level of humidity is best for your pet reptile.

Cleanliness is essential for successful longterm maintenance of reptiles. Cages should be kept free of any urine or animal droppings, and uneaten food should be removed and disposed of daily. Internal parasites are one of the most common health problems in captive reptiles. These parasites often need only one host—the reptile—and the offspring of the parasite can re-infect the same host. Therefore, animal droppings should be removed in a timely manner. Tools used for scooping waste should be disinfected after use in each cage to reduce the possibility of spreading the disease from cage to cage. Owners should ask their veterinarian about the most appropriate disinfectant for their reptile’s environment and the frequency and concentration that is safest for their pet.

Substrates should generally be replaced at least once a month or more often if multiple pets are housed in the same enclosure. Aquatic and terrestrial environments should be disassembled and disinfected at least every 3 months. Water dishes should be thoroughly cleaned at least once a week. Although turtles appear to tolerate chlorine in treated water reasonably well, its long-term effects are not known. Chlorine may result in temporary eye irritation in aquatic turtles not used to chlorine, but it appears to be beneficial in controlling infection-causing bacteria and viruses in the water.

The recommended minimum protein content of a reptile diet is about 30% to 50% for meat-eaters and about 18% to 22% for plant-eaters. Inadequate protein levels result in weight loss, muscle wasting, increased chance of infection, failure to reproduce, and slower healing after injury. An infection that will not go away after treatment can be the result of inadequate nutrition. High-protein commercial diets may prompt rapid growth but can have severe longterm consequences such as hyperuricemia (see below).

Carnivores (meat-eaters) should be fed whole animals, not just muscle meat, so that they benefit from consuming the calcium contained in animals’ bones. Feeding large amounts of high-protein cat foods has been shown to cause increased levels of protein and vitamin D₃. Many nutritionists recommend not feeding cat foods to reptiles. Dog food, especially low-fat varieties, can be used sparingly as part of a complete and balanced diet in both meat eaters and plant eaters. Feeding excess protein can result in a condition called hyperuricemia, in which uric acid (the white, chalky-looking substance seen in reptiles’ droppings that is made in the liver from protein digestion) accumulates in the bloodstream and is deposited abnormally in internal organs. This may lead to failure (gout) of the affected organs, which can be fatal.

Protein deficiencies can occur in reptiles with poor appetites or in herbivores (plant-eaters) eating diets deficient in protein. Diets for herbivorous reptiles should include plant proteins from vegetables and legumes. Reptiles that refuse to eat may require a change in their environment or enough variety in the diet to identify a preferred food item.

Fiber is required for the normal functioning of the digestive tract. In large land tortoises and other plant-eating species, adding fiber or roughage (such as hay) to the diet may help improve digestion and eliminate chronic, smelly diarrhea.

Fats are made up of smaller building blocks called fatty acids. Specific fatty acid requirements have not been determined for reptiles. Dietary linoleic acid, a fatty acid required in the diet of many other animals, is recommended for some reptile species. Your veterinarian can advise you about appropriate fat sources for your pet reptile.

Mineral deficiencies are seen frequently in captive reptiles, especially turtles, tortoises, and lizards. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies are rare in snakes that are fed nutrient-rich whole prey. A vitamin and mineral supplement should be added to the diet of every captive reptile; many products designed for use in reptiles are available in pet stores. Properly balanced calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D₃ levels are necessary to maintain good health in reptiles. If the balance is upset, hormonal disorders or bone diseases can occur. Because reptile species vary in what supplements they require to maintain this balance, be sure to speak to your veterinarian before giving your pet reptile any dietary supplements.

Calcium imbalance is a common mineral imbalance in reptiles. For carnivores, a diet of only muscle meat (not whole prey) is deficient in calcium and rich in phosphorus. Including whole prey (that contains calcium-rich bones, as well as phosphorus-rich muscle meat) or a low-fat dog food (balanced in calcium and phosphorus) in the diet is recommended. Most reptiles, even those on nutritionally balanced diets, benefit from dietary calcium supplementation. When supplementing dietary calcium, be sure to use only products developed for reptiles. In addition, check with your veterinarian as to how often you should be giving these products and whether your pet needs supplemental vitamin D3, as well as calcium.

The exoskeleton (outer hard covering) of insects does not contain calcium. Therefore, reptiles that feed primarily on insects must obtain dietary calcium from insects “gut loaded” and powdered with calcium supplements. Plant-eating reptiles should be encouraged to eat items rich in calcium, including cabbage, kale, okra, sprouts, collard greens, and bok choy. These foods typically are also rich in vitamin A. A calcium supplement developed for reptiles should be routinely given to plant-eaters.

Vitamin D is also required for proper calcium metabolism and balance. Animals housed outside with access to natural, unfiltered sunlight usually have adequate levels of vitamin D₃. Access to ultraviolet light is strongly encouraged for reptiles that are not exposed to unfiltered sunlight ( see Lighting Requirements, above). Reptiles that are fed whole mammals (such as mice) as prey generally consume adequate levels of preformed vitamin D₃ found in prey species’ bones. The food of reptiles that eat mostly insects should be fortified by gut loading and powdering. Plant-eating reptiles that have limited exposure to ultraviolet light should receive supplemental vitamin D₃. Some calcium supplements for reptiles also contain vitamin D₃. When giving calcium supplements to your reptile, ask your veterinarian whether your pet should also be given supplemental vitamin D₃, and be sure to follow your veterinarian’s recommendations so that you don’t over-supplement with either calcium or vitamin D₃.

Inappropriate levels of calcium, phosphorus, or vitamin D can result in an imbalance in the hormone that regulates calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium levels within the body. If these levels are not balanced, the bones may become weak and begin to bow outward. This condition is most often seen in the jaw bones. Eating becomes difficult and then impossible as the jaw bones become soft. Reptiles with very soft jaw bones cannot chew properly and must be fed liquid through a tube into their stomachs or with a syringe into their mouths. Osteomalacia (softening of the bones of adult animals from lack of vitamin D₃ and calcium), kidney stones, cloacal calculi (accumulated mineral deposits, similar to kidney stones), and rickets (similar to osteomalacia but typically in young animals) also are possible results of a diet deficient in calcium or vitamin D₃. Broken bones, bone deformities, and soft or deformed shells in turtles may occur. Affected animals may develop muscle twitching or muscle contractions.

Treatment consists of correcting the balance of these minerals by having your veterinarian prescribe oral calcium and give injections of vitamin D₃ and by ensuring exposure to an appropriate UV light source for several hours a day. Your reptile's dietary history would help the veterinarian evaluate for deficiencies and determine possible courses of treatment. If a calcium supplement is used in the initial stages of treatment, it should not contain phosphorus. An excellent calcium source is calcium glubionate, given on the recommendation of a veterinarian. Other sources of dietary calcium include crushed cuttlebone, crushed oyster shells, crushed or pulverized calcium lactate, or commercially available products. In severe cases, a veterinarian can give a calcium injection before giving extra calcium by mouth.

Goiter is a condition in which the thyroid gland swells in response to lack of dietary iodine. Feeding of certain green foods that contain goiter-causing compounds, such as Bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and soy, may cause an iodine deficiency. Signs of deficiency include a lack of normal energy and activity and an abnormal swelling (goiter) at the base of the neck where it meets the chest. The imbalance is corrected by supplementing with a balanced vitamin-mineral mixture containing iodine or iodized salt (0.5% of the diet).

Vitamin A deficiency is common in captive plant-eating turtles. Box turtles appear most at risk usually because of improper diets that do not contain enough vitamin A. Signs of vitamin A deficiency include swollen eyelids, eye discharge, chronic respiratory disease, and kidney disease. The eyes may eventually remain closed, impairing the ability of the turtle to find food. Treatment consists of short daily soaks to allow the turtle to drink and wash its eyes, application of an antibiotic ointment to the eyes, and vitamin A injections given by a veterinarian. For less severe cases, vitamin A can be supplied by adding a drop of cod liver oil to the reptile’s food twice a week. Commercial vitamin products are also available for reptiles. Dietary levels of vitamin A should be increased for up to 6 weeks before hibernation in turtles and tortoises. However, caution should be used when supplementing because too much vitamin A can cause severe thickening and irritation of the skin as well as incomplete and inadequate shedding of the skin.

Thiaminase is an enzyme found in raw fish that breaks down thiamine (a B vitamin). Vitamin B deficiency can result from diets containing fish with high thiaminase levels. Giving extra vitamin B₁ is required in such cases. Weight loss, even in reptiles eating adequately, is common, but neurologic problems (such as paralysis and lack of coordination or balance) also can occur. Some fish species contain more thiaminase than others. Frozen fish have increased thiaminase levels. Deficiencies of multiple vitamins simultaneously are common when animals are fed poor diets and often require treatment with a multivitamin supplement.

Deficiencies of other vitamins and minerals sometimes occur in reptiles and can be diagnosed and treated by your veterinarian.