Sugar gliders are small, nocturnal, tree-dwelling marsupials, native to Australia, Indonesia, and New Guinea, that have become popular pets. Their name derives from the thin membrane of tissue (the patagium) that extends from the wrists on their forelimbs to the ankles on their hindlimbs, which enables them to glide from tree to tree in the wild. In the US, they are also referred to as "sugar bears." Wild sugar gliders live in large social groups called colonies and fare better in captivity when housed in pairs or small groups. Sugar gliders are omnivorous hindgut fermenters that rely on bacterial cecal fermentation to digest carbohydrates. In the wild, they eat a variety of plants, sap, and invertebrates. This diet is hard to replicate in captivity, predisposing captive gliders to nutrient deficiencies and disease.
Sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps) are small, nocturnal marsupials, native to Australia, Indonesia, and New Guinea, that live in eucalyptus and acacia forests. They belong to the family Petauridae, which includes the wrist-winged gliders.
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Sugar gliders possess a gliding membrane (patagium) extending from the wrist of the forelimb to the ankle of the hindlimb that enables them to glide as far as 50 m and forage for food using less energy than they would if they were climbing.
Sugar gliders use their tails as stabilizing rudders that enable them to change direction easily. The second and third toes on their hindfeet are fused to form one toe with two nails that is used as a grooming comb to help them clean their fur.
Females are seasonally polyestrous and have two lateral vaginas, a central vaginal canal, two uteri, two cervices, and a pouch containing four teats; they often have twin births. After 16 days of gestation, the young (joeys), each weighing only 0.2 g, migrate to the mother's pouch to develop further (see pouch image); they leave the pouch after 50–74 days.
Courtesy of Dr. Laurie Hess.
Joeys remain in the nest until they are approximately 100 days old, when they are weaned. They stay with the colony until they are forced to leave at approximately 7–10 months old.
Sugar glider males have a forked penis (to match the female's double vagina; see penis image) and a pendulous scrotum containing two testicles. Males urinate not from the forked end of the penis but from the proximal end.
Courtesy of Dr. Laurie Hess.
Both males and females have paracloacal scent glands adjacent to the vent (the cloacal opening or common opening of the urinary, reproductive, and GI tracts), with which they mark territory and each other. Males also have frontal scent glands on their foreheads, as well as glands on their throats and chests. Sparse fur and an oily discharge are normal on the frontal and sternal glands of postpubescent males. These glands give both sexes a musky odor.
Sugar gliders have large, protruding, widely spaced eyes, affording them a wide field of vision, especially at night. Their ears move independently and are highly sensitive to sound. They also have a keen sense of smell to locate food, sense predators, and recognize both their territory and their colony-mates.
Wild gliders have gray fur and a central black stripe dorsally on their heads; domesticated gliders can look similar to the wild type but also come in several color variations. Color variations include classic or standard gray, albino, creamino, leucistic, black beauty, platinum, cedar red, mahogany red, lion, and caramel, as well as many others. Some mosaic lines of sugar gliders can produce infertile males (1).
Sugar gliders are polygamous and territorial, and live in colonies of 5–12 individuals, which typically consist of a dominant male, a couple of subordinate males, and several females. Gliders sleep in tree hollows during the day and between foraging trips at night. They tolerate a wide range of environmental temperatures and go into torpor to conserve energy in very cold conditions.
Sugar gliders are omnivorous, feeding on sugar-rich plant and insect exudates (sap, gum, nectar, manna, pollen) and on invertebrates as a source of protein. They are hindgut fermenters and possess a well-developed cecum that uses bacterial fermentation to break down complex polysaccharides contained in gum. The remainder of their GI tract is most similar to that of carnivores.
Also see the table Selected Physiological Data for Sugar Gliders.
Selected Physiological Data for Sugar Glidersa
Lifespan | 4–15 years |
Adult body weight | Females: 80–135 g Males: 100–160 g |
Respiratory rate | 16–40 breaths/min |
Heart rate | 200–300 bpm |
Body temperature | 36.3°C (97.3°F) |
Thermoneutral zone | 27–31°C (80–88°F) |
Food consumptionb | 15–20% body weight/day |
Dentition | Diprotodont (having two incisors) |
Dental formula | 2 (I 3/2 C 1/0 P 3/3 M 4/4) |
Puberty | Females: 8–12 months Males: 12–14 months |
Estrous cycle | 29 days |
Gestation period | 15–17 days |
Litter sizec | 2 (81%) |
Birth weight | 0.2 g |
Pouch emergence | Approx. 60 days (50–74 days) |
Weaning | Approx. 100 days (85–120 days) |
aExcept as noted otherwise, data are from a chart in Brust DM, Mans C. Sugar gliders. In: Carpenter JW, Harms CA, eds. Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Formulary. 6th ed. Elsevier; 2023:496-510, supported by the following sources:
bFood consumption data are from Brust DM. Sugar Gliders: A Complete Veterinary Care Guide. Veterinary Interactive Publications; 2009. cLitter size data are from Suckling GC. Population ecology of the sugar glider, Petaurus breviceps, in a system of fragmented habitats. Aust Wildl Res. 1984;11(1):49-75. doi:10.1071/WR9840049 | |
Physical Examination of Sugar Gliders
If possible, examination of a sugar glider should begin with observation of the patient moving in its cage to assess posture, coordination, respiratory rate/effort, and demeanor. For a full clinical examination, anesthesia with isoflurane via face mask may be required if the patient is very stressed or biting. More docile patients can be examined while wrapped in a small towel and cupped in the palm of the hand. Grabbing them by the scruff is not recommended. Gliders inside fabric bags or pouches can be partially exposed, one body part at a time, for examination.
Because gliders are nocturnal, clinical examinations should be scheduled early in the day, when the animals are less active.
If the glider is anesthetized, cloacal temperature, heart rate, and respiration rate can be recorded and the heart and lungs assessed with a pediatric stethoscope. Females with joeys in the pouch should not be anesthetized. If anesthesia is necessary, joeys that are in the pouch but not attached to the teat should first be removed (1).
Joeys removed from the pouch when the mother must be anesthetized should be kept in a cloth pouch in a warm incubator at approximately 28–32°C (82–89°F), with unfurred joeys maintained at a higher temperature than furred ones. If separated from the mother for extended periods of time, joeys require feedings every 2–4 hours and should be offered milk replacer that is low in lactose (eg, diluted canine milk replacer or a product formulated in Australia specifically for juvenile sugar gliders) (2).
The glider's fur and skin should be examined for ectoparasites, traumatic injury, fur loss, and extent of hydration; the oral cavity, for broken teeth, dental abscesses, or tartar buildup; and the eyes and ears, for any abnormalities. The cloacal area should be examined and the penis of males extruded. The abdomen should be palpated and the pouch of females examined. Major joints should also be palpated and digits and toenails checked for evidence of trauma. The patagium should be evaluated for wounds, evidence of previous trauma, and contracture.
Diagnostic and Treatment Techniques for Sugar Gliders
If a sugar glider is dehydrated, isotonic fluids (up to 10% of body weight) can be administered subcutaneously over the shoulder region on dorsal midline. Care should be taken not to induce edema to the patagium, because this can be painful, and fluid absorption from this region can be very slow.
Fluids can also be administered intraosseously in the proximal femur or tibia. SC injections can be given in the same area that SC fluids are administered. IM injections can be given in the epaxial muscles of the neck and dorsal thorax or in the cranial thigh muscle. IV injections are very difficult to perform but can be accomplished in cephalic or lateral saphenous veins in an anesthetized glider.
Radiographs generally require the glider to be anesthetized for proper positioning. Pulmonary diseases are easiest to detect with radiography. Ultrasonography can be used to evaluate for free fluid in the chest or abdomen. Feces can be easily sampled and annually checked for parasites with fecal flotation and direct smear; animals with diarrhea should have their feces cultured and tested for appropriate antimicrobial sensitivity.
Blood Collection, Hematology, and Biochemistry of Sugar Gliders
Reference ranges for sugar gliders are presented in the table Selected Hematologic and Biochemical Values for Sugar Gliders. Chemical restraint, essential to allow blood collection, is most safely achieved with isoflurane or oxygen administered via mask and T-piece.
Selected Hematologic and Biochemical Values for Sugar Glidersa
Parameter | Normal Rangeb |
|---|---|
Hematology | |
Hemoglobin (g/dL) | 16.3 ± 1.9 (15.8–16.9) |
Hematocrit (%) | 53 ± 6 (51–54) |
RBCs (106/mcL) | 8.6 ± 1.0 (8.3–8.8) |
Mean corpuscular Hgb concentration (g/dL) | 30.8 ± 0.7 (30.6–31.0) |
Mean corpuscular Hgb (pg) | 19.1 ± 1.1 (18.8–19.4) |
Mean corpuscular volume (fL) | 64.1 ± 14.8 (60.2–68.1) |
WBCs (103/mcL) | 7.4 ± 7.7 (5.5–9.3) |
Neutrophils (103/mcL) | 1.8 ± 1.5 (1.5–2.2) |
Lymphocytes (103/mcL) | 5.4 ± 7.0 (3.7–7.2) |
Monocytes (103/mcL) | 0.1 ± 0.1 (0.1–0.2) |
Eosinophils (103/mcL) | 0.2 ± 0.2 (0.1–0.3) |
Basophils (103/mcL) | 0.0 ± 0.0 (0.0–0.1) |
Platelets (103/mcL) | 346 ± 201 (292–400) |
Biochemistry | |
ALT (U/L) | 117 ± 28 (89–137) |
AST (U/L) | 77 ± 71 (54–100) |
ALP (U/L) | 102 ± 57 (89–137) |
Amylase (U/L) | 2,734 ± 890 (2,117–3,351) |
Bilirubin, total (mg/dL) | 0.4 ± 1.3 (0.1–0.7) |
Calcium (mg/dL) | 8.7 ± 0.8 (8.5–8.9) |
CK (U/L) | 1,359 ± 972 (1,081–1,637) |
Creatinine (mg/dL) | 0.5 ± 0.3 (0.5–0.6) |
Urea nitrogen (mg/dL) | 17 ± 8 (15–18) |
Glucose (mg/dL) | 162 ± 45 (153–172) |
Phosphorus (mg/dL) | 5.2 ± 3.6 (4.4–6.1) |
Potassium (mmol/L) | 5.1 ± 2.3 (4.6–5.5) |
Magnesium (mmol/L) | 0.95 ± 0.25 (0.8–1.05) |
Sodium (mmol/L) | 141 ± 11 (139–143) |
Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 118 ± 28 (112–124) |
Protein, total (g/dL) | 6.9 ± 0.7 (6.7–7.0) |
Albumin (g/dL) | 3.9 ± 0.4 (3.1–4.6) |
Globulin (g/dL) | 3.0 ± 0.5 (2.9–3.1) |
Abbreviations: ALP, alkaline phosphatase; ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase. aData are from Brust DM, Mans C. Sugar gliders. In: Carpenter JW, Harms CA, eds. Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Formulary. 6th ed. Elsevier; 2023:496-510. bValues reported represent the mean ± standard deviation, with ranges representing 95% confidence intervals after outliers were removed. Statistically 90% of the population should have values within these limits. | |
To assist in clinical diagnoses of diseases in sugar gliders, blood samples can be obtained from the cranial vena cava, jugular vein, medial tibial artery, or lateral tail vein. Blood volumes of up to 1% of body weight can be collected; typically, 0.5–1 mL of blood is obtained. Smaller volumes of blood should be collected from sick or debilitated animals. General anesthesia is often needed to facilitate blood collection.
The cranial vena cava in a sugar glider can be accessed with a 27- or 25-gauge needle on an insulin syringe inserted in the thoracic inlet just lateral to the manubrium, with the needle directed at a 30° angle from midline toward the opposite hindleg. The vena cava is not visualized directly during venipuncture; rather, it is accessed blindly using the manubrium as a palpable landmark. Complications can include hematomas, laceration of the cranial vena cava, or puncture of the heart.
A sugar glider's jugular vein can be visualized if the hair is clipped and the vein is forced to fill by application of gentle digital pressure at the thoracic inlet. The jugular vein sits midway between the shoulder joint and the mandibular ramus. The needle can be bent at its base to facilitate venipuncture at this site.
The medial tibial artery, which runs very superficially just distal and medial to the stifle joint, is easier to access and can be sampled with a 27- or 25-gauge needle on a 0.3- to 1-mL syringe. Pressure after sampling is required to prevent hematoma formation.
The lateral tail vein has the most suitable size for skin prick and droplet collection into capillary tubes. Small blood samples (0.25 mL) can also be obtained from the cephalic, lateral saphenous, femoral, and ventral coccygeal veins with a 27-gauge needle on an insulin syringe.
Anesthesia and Surgery in Sugar Gliders
Anesthesia in sugar gliders should be approached the same way it is in other small mammals. Gliders ideally should be fasted for 3–4 hours before surgery (3). Preoperative analgesics, sedatives to lower preoperative stress, and local and gas anesthetics can all be used.
Care must be taken to keep gliders warm during surgery to ensure rapid recovery. Gliders undergoing surgeries that last > 1 hour or that require intra-abdominal access should be administered fluids intraosseously (in the femur or tibia) throughout the procedure if IV access is impossible because of the vein's small size. Shorter, simple procedures might necessitate only SC fluids administered with any premedications before anesthesia and surgery. Reversal and emergency drug dosages should be calculated before induction.
Commonly used preanesthetic drugs include midazolam and either butorphanol or buprenorphine. Atropine or glycopyrrolate can also be given; however, they can have adverse effects on GI motility and can thicken saliva and airway secretions (4).
Local anesthetic injections of lidocaine or bupivacaine should be used to infiltrate the incision site to minimize the risk of postoperative self-mutilation, common in sugar gliders (5, 6). To facilitate castration, these drugs can be diluted with sterile water and infused into the base of the scrotal stalk nearest the abdomen, while a low concentration of gas anesthetic is administered.
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Both isoflurane and sevoflurane can be administered via a small face mask or via a large face mask used as an induction chamber. For surgery, gliders can be maintained on gas anesthesia with a face mask or intubated with a 1-mm Cook endotracheal tube threaded with a stylet.
During surgery, blood loss should be monitored carefully; use of radiosurgery can help minimize bleeding. Because sugar gliders tend to chew incisions after surgery, subcuticular sutures and skin glue should be used to close skin incisions. Analgesics should be administered before surgery to minimize pain during and immediately after surgery.
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Gliders should recover from surgery in temperature-controlled incubators. Food should be offered immediately after recovery from anesthesia, unless the surgery performed contraindicates postoperative feeding. Being fed can also help distract patients from bothering their incisions on recovery. Elizabethan collars are recommended after surgery to lower the risk of self-mutilation.
To prevent breeding and decrease sexual frustration, orchiectomy and scrotal ablation are commonly performed on male sugar gliders via the following procedure:
Hair is clipped around the base of the scrotal sac and stalk, and the skin is cleaned.
A local anesthetic is administered at the base of the stalk.
With the glider under gas anesthesia, the incision is made over the scrotal stalk approximately 2–3 mm from the body wall.
The spermatic cords are exposed by blunt dissection and are clamped and ligated with 5-0 polydioxanone suture or cut and cauterized via radiosurgery.
The scrotal sac, along with the testicles and distal spermatic cord, is removed, and the ligated stalk can be sutured to the abdominal wall fascia to prevent herniation.
The skin is closed with tissue glue.
Other orchiectomy/scrotal ablation techniques have been described using carbon dioxide laser (7), an electrosurgery pen (8), or a tissue fusion device such as LigaSure (9). These methods often involve less anesthetic and surgical time and should be used, if available.
Standard ovariohysterectomy is not routinely performed in sugar gliders because of the internal position of the female reproductive organs, which are difficult to access beneath the pouch. The procedure is as follows:
The area around the pouch is clipped and scrubbed in a routine manner.
A 1- to 2-cm incision is made paramedian to the pouch.
The linea alba is bluntly dissected and incised, and the bladder is exteriorized from the incision to reveal the ovaries beneath.
The ovarian arteries are ligated, as is the uterus proximally to the lateral vaginal canals, at the cervix.
After resection of both ovaries and uteri, the linea is closed, and the skin is closed with subcuticular sutures and skin glue.
Distal penile amputation is another common surgery in sugar gliders. Sexually frustrated males sometimes self-mutilate the distal end of their penises or develop paraphimosis. Because males urinate only from the proximal end, the distal, forked segment can be safely amputated.
Patagium repair surgery might also be necessary in sugar gliders. Small wounds can heal by second intention; however, larger wounds could require primary closure, as in other species. Owners should be made aware that damage to the patagium can result in contracture and potentially decreased mobility (1).
Other surgeries performed in sugar gliders include cystotomy to remove uroliths; urethrostomy to alleviate urinary tract obstruction from uroliths in males; amputation of the tail, digits, or limbs in cases of trauma, constriction injury, or severe self-mutilation; and surgical removal of impacted paracloacal glands.
The procedure for removing impacted paracloacal glands is as follows:
The skin over the glands is infiltrated with a small volume of local anesthetic and incised.
The gland is bluntly dissected and removed without rupturing it.
The blood vessel supplying the gland is ligated with 5-0 or 6-0 polydioxanone suture or cut and cauterized with radiosurgery.
The skin is closed with tissue glue.
Nutrition and Housing of Sugar Gliders
Sugar gliders should be maintained as a group with one male and multiple females. If breeding occurs, the young should be removed soon after weaning to avoid violent attempts to disperse them. If housed alone, sugar gliders need a substantial amount of attention and enrichment to minimize stress and self-mutilation.
Because sugar gliders are arboreal (tree-dwelling), they require a large wire cage for nocturnal climbing. Galvanized wire cages should be avoided because of the potential for heavy metal toxicosis if gliders chew on the wire (10). Caution should also be taken using PVC-coated stainless steel because there have been anecdotal reports of toxicosis in gliders that have chewed on cage bars (1).
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As large a cage as possible—minimum 90 × 60 × 90 cm (36 × 24 × 36 inches)—should be provided for sugar gliders. To prevent entrapment of gliders' feet and heads, bars should be spaced no more than 1.25 cm (0.5 inch) apart. Caging containing vertical bars should be avoided, because vertical bars do not facilitate climbing.
A wooden nest box (made for birds) or a fabric pouch, positioned high up in sugar glider cages, should be provided for hiding and sleeping. Cages should contain numerous branches (commercially available for bird cages) and horizontal shelves to promote climbing. Swings and chew toys made for birds are ideal for gliders to play with. Exercise wheels with smooth interiors (to avoid entrapment of toes) should be provided for physical and mental stimulation.
The bottom of sugar glider cages can be covered with newspaper or other recycled paper products that are nontoxic if ingested. Several food and water bowls should be provided throughout the cage, with designated areas for eating, drinking, exercising, and hiding.
Nest boxes, hiding pouches, food and water bowls, and bedding in sugar glider cages should be cleaned regularly. Fabric hiding pouches should be inspected for loose strings and replaced as needed to prevent injuries or ingestion of material.
Several commercial formulations and recipes for homemade sugar glider diets are available; no single diet studied has yet proved to be ideal for captive sugar gliders. One recommended diet includes calcium-loaded insects (crickets, mealworms, wax worms, cockroaches, moths) to promote dental health, as well as a daily nectar/sap substitute (eg, fructose/sucrose/glucose, maple syrup, or honey diluted to 10% with water) (11).
Nectar should account for approximately 50% of a sugar glider's diet. Several nectar substitutes are commercially available, including nectar supplements formulated specifically for gliders, those containing acacia gum powder, and nectar diets meant for lories. Protein sources other than insects include eggs, lean meat, newborn mice, and commercial pelleted diets formulated for sugar gliders.
Commercial pelleted formulations or homemade insectivore or omnivore mixes should be provided in addition to live food, with insects and pelleted food accounting for nearly 50% of the total sugar glider diet. Some guidelinesrecommend that up to 75% of the diet consist of commercial pelleted food formulated specifically for sugar gliders (1). However, there have been limited studies on commercially available formulations; they may not provide adequate nutrition for sugar gliders and could potentially have mineral and vitamin imbalances (12).
Fruits, nuts, and vegetables should be offered to sugar gliders only in moderation (< 10% of total diet), because many fruits and vegetables lack essential vitamins, minerals, and protein and contain mostly water. Because fruits contain more sugar and lack calcium and protein, large amounts of fruit can predispose sugar gliders to periodontal disease and nutritional deficiency.
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Before the availability of commercial pelleted formulations for sugar gliders, a homemade formula called Leadbeater's diet was fed successfully when offered in addition to insects, fruits, and vegetables. The mixture contains 150 mL of warm water, 150 mL of honey, one hard-boiled egg (shelled), one teaspoon of multivitamin/mineral supplement, and 25 g of high-protein dry human infant cereal (12).
An alternative to the homemade Leadbeater's diet is a commercially available high-protein, powdered supplement that was formulated for sugar gliders in Australia and is mixed with water before being fed. In addition, if not provided in the diet, a multivitamin and mineral supplement with calcium should be sprinkled on food daily.
Whatever, the diet, food should be offered in the evening, when sugar gliders are active, on an elevated platform, because gliders feel more secure eating up high, as they do in trees in the wild.
Sugar gliders are generally robust in captivity, if proper husbandry practices are followed. However, nutritional deficiencies, especially of calcium and protein, are common in captive gliders that are fed inappropriately, and they can lead to serious conditions such as metabolic bone disease.
Obesity is common in gliders that are fed excessive amounts of treats high in fat and protein and are not provided opportunities to exercise.
Iron storage disease, in which excessive dietary iron accumulates in the liver (hemochromatosis), spleen, and other tissues, has been reported in captive gliders and could be associated with wild gliders' evolutionary adaptation to extract limited iron from their natural diets (1, 12, 13, 14). Hepatocellular toxic changes and cirrhosis from iron deposition can lead to death, unless the disease is caught and treated early with chelation and supportive care.
Key Points
Sugar gliders are marsupials whose juveniles complete development in the maternal pouch.
Sugar gliders have unique anatomical structures, such as double vaginas, uteri, and cervices in females; a forked penis in males; and numerous scent glands, including paracloacal glands.
Gliders are omnivorous hindgut fermenters that consume a variety of plants, insects, and sap/gum.
For More Information
Johnson-Delaney CA. Sugar gliders. In: Quesenberry KE, Orcutt CJ, Mans C, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery. 4th ed. Elsevier; 2021:385-400.
Brust DM, Mans C. Sugar gliders. In: Carpenter JW, Harms CA, eds. Carpenter’s Exotic Animal Formulary. 6th ed. Elsevier; 2023:496-510.
Also see pet owner content regarding sugar gliders.
References
Johnson-Delaney CA. Sugar gliders. In: Quesenberry KE, Orcutt CJ, Mans C, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery. 4th ed. Elsevier; 2021:385-400.
Burgess ME, Bishop CR. Reproductive physiology, normal neonatology, and neonatal disorders of sugar gliders. In: Lopate C, ed. Management of Pregnant and Neonatal Dogs, Cats, and Exotic Pets. Wiley-Blackwell; 2012:283-293.
Kubiak M. Sugar gliders. In Handbook of Exotic Pet Medicine. Kubiak M, ed. John Wiley & Sons; 2021:125-139.
Doss G, de Miguel Garcia C. African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) and sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) sedation and anesthesia. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2022;25(1):257-272. doi:10.1016/j.cvex.2021.08.005
Lawal FM, Adetunji A. A comparison of epidural anaesthesia with lignocaine, bupivacaine and a lignocaine-bupivacaine mixture in cats. J S Afr Vet Assoc. 2009;80(4):243-246. doi:10.4102/jsava.v80i4.220
Lizarraga I, Janovyak E, Beths T. Comparing lidocaine, bupivacaine and a lidocaine–bupivacaine mixture as a metacarpal block in sheep. Vet J. 2013;197(2):515-518. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.12.029
Morges MA, Grant KR, MacPhail CM, Johnston MS. A novel technique for orchiectomy and scrotal ablation in the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2009;40(1):204-206. doi:10.1638/2007-0169.1
Malbrue RA, Arsuaga CB, Collins TA, Allen JL, Diggs TJ, Langohr IM. Scrotal stalk ablation and orchiectomy using electrosurgery in the male sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) and histologic anatomy of the testes and associated scrotal structures. J Exot Pet Med. 2018;27(2):90-94. doi:10.1053/j.jepm.2018.02.037
Cusack L, Cutler D, Mayer J. The use of the LigaSure device for scrotal ablation in marsupials. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2017;48(1):228-231. doi:10.1638/2016-0069.1
Carboni D, Tully TN. Marsupials. Manual of Exotic Pet Practice. Saunders Elsevier; 2009:299-325.
Dierenfeld ES. Feeding behavior and nutrition of the sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps). Vet Clin North Am Exotic Anim Pract. 2009;12(2):209-215. doi:10.1016/j.cvex.2009.01.014
Dierenfeld ES, Thomas D, Ives R. Comparison of commonly used diets on intake, digestion, growth, and health in captive sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps). J Exot Pet Med. 2006;15(3):218-224.
Nojiri K, Kondo H, Nagamune M, Yamashita T, Shibuya H. First case of hemochromatosis in a sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps). J Vet Med Sci. 2023;85(2):194-198. doi:10.1292/jvms.22-0361
Brust DM. Gastrointestinal diseases of marsupials. J Exot Pet Med. 2013;22(2):132-140. doi:10.1053/j.jepm.2013.05.005
