logoPROFESSIONAL VERSION

Upper Limb Lameness in Cattle

ByGerard Cramer, DVM, DVSc, University of Minnesota;Laura Solano, DVM, PhD, Independent Contractor
Reviewed/Revised Apr 2023

Upper leg lameness is more common in beef cattle compared to dairy cattle. Both diagnosis and treatment are more difficult than in cases of lower limb lameness. In general, diagnosing the cause of upper leg lameness requires ancillary testing such as radiography and ultrasonography. Unless the animal is valuable breeding stock or a show animal, surgical treatment for upper leg lameness is typically not pursued as the overall prognosis is poor. The majority of surgical procedures for upper limb lameness are referral procedures or in-clinic procedures requiring advanced training. Conservative treatment consisting of rest and NSAIDS is typically considered the primary treatment. If the animal does not respond to conservative treatment, euthanasia or culling is usually recommended, depending on the ambulatory status of the animal.

Hock and Knee Injuries in Cattle

Hock and knee injuries often present as hair loss, swelling, and/or broken skin in the region of the hock (tarsus) and knee (carpus). Severe lesions in these leg regions are associated with lameness. These injuries are more common in confined/housed dairy cattle, and their assessment at the herd level is part of welfare quality assurance programs.

Pathogenesis

Hock and knee injuries generally arise from animals rubbing on hard or abrasive surfaces in their resting area. These injuries are more common in cows housed in free-stall or tie-stall dairies, predisposed by suboptimal stall management and stall design, base, and bedding. Hard stall bases without sufficient bedding or with abrasive bedding, improper stall dimensions, and wet lying surfaces contribute to these injuries. The hocks and knees rub repeatedly as a cow moves in her stall or transitions between lying and standing, creating friction that results in injuries to these upper-leg regions over time.

Diagnosis

Hock and knee injuries vary in severity, ranging from areas of hair loss or broken skin, scabs, or minor swelling to areas with major swelling and/or open wounds with purulent discharge.

Prevention

Hock and knee injuries can be prevented by improving cow comfort. Cows should be housed in stalls that are appropriately sized and configured for the animals in the herd, and the stalls should be deeply bedded with nonabrasive bedding material.

Treatment

The best treatment for animals with hock and knee injuries is to remove the inciting cause of injury or move the animal to a deeply bedded lying area. Cows with open lesions may require supportive wound care; they will not recover, however, if the environmental cause of the injury is not addressed.

Stifle Injuries in Cattle

Stifle injuries are a common cause of upper-leg hind-limb lameness in cattle and often involve the cruciate ligaments, the meniscus, or the patella.

Pathogenesis

Most stifle injuries in adult cows and bulls result from traumatic events such as slipping, falling, mounting, or exertion in downer animals. In older animals, degenerative joint disease may also be a contributing factor.

Diagnosis

Stifle injuries typically manifest as nonspecific hind-limb lameness. A physical exam should be used to rule out lower-limb injuries or problems and to localize the issue to the stifle. With stifle injuries, joint effusion, pain, and crepitus in the joint are common signs. Hearing a clicking sound and eliciting a cranial drawer sign are diagnostic for cranial cruciate ligament injury. Meniscus injury presents as nonspecific stifle lameness and can accompany cranial cruciate injury. Patellar luxation presents similar to femoral nerve paralysis in calves; in both conditions, the animal cannot extend the stifle. Upward fixation of the patella results in a characteristic extension of the limb and is accompanied by locking and unlocking of the patella on the medial trocheal ridge. This condition is rare and is more common in bulls.

Prevention

To prevent stifle injuries, the focus is to provide secure footing within the animal’s housing environment to avoid issues with slipping and falling.

Treatment

Stifle injuries can be treated; usually, however, the prognosis is guarded to poor. Conservative treatment is comprised of confinement and prolonged NSAID administration. For valuable animals, surgical options are available.

Hip Injuries in Cattle

The most common injury to the hip is a coxofemoral luxation, in either the craniodorsal or the cranioventral direction. Traumatic fractures of the tuber coxae or femoral head can also occur.

Pathogenesis

Hip injuries result from traumatic events such as falling, slipping, or bumping into hard objects in the environment.

Diagnosis

Coxofemoral luxations can present as a dropped-hip appearance if the animal is standing. Cows suffering from cranioventrally displaced luxation usually present as down animals. Fractures can be palpated if they affect the tuber coxae; other fractures typically cannot be felt.

Prevention

Prevention of hip injuries focuses on preventing traumatic events, which typically result from aggressive handling practices, mounting, or slippery flooring.

Treatment

For most hip injuries, the prognosis is guarded; it is more favorable in younger animals. Usually, and especially for femoral head fractures, euthanasia is the most suitable course of action. However, some surgical approaches involving an open reduction can be successful for coxofemoral luxations. Conservative treatment of coxofemoral luxations has also been reported to be successful if done within 48 hours of the occurrence of the injury.

Noninfectious Joint Disease in Cattle

A variety of noninfectious joint diseases exist, including osteochondrosis, degenerative joint disease and osteoarthritis. In both beef and dairy cattle, noninfectious joint disease is rarely diagnosed and occurs infrequently.

Pathogenesis

Because of their infrequent occurrence, noninfectious joint diseases have not been studied extensively; however, the pathogenesis of these disorders is thought to be similar to the pathogenesis of the same types of disorders in other species.

Diagnosis

Most joint diseases present with a variable extent of lameness and joint effusion. Osteochondrosis and degenerative joint disease are commonly found in young, growing animals; osteoarthritis is more common in older animals. Further diagnostic tests, such as radiography and arthrocentesis, are required to differentiate these joint diseases more fully.

Prevention

Because of their unclear pathogenesis, strategies to prevent noninfectious joint diseases are limited.

Treatment

Conservative treatment for joint disease—restricting activity and administering NSAIDs—is often unrewarding. Surgical approaches, including arthroscopy, have been used successfully to treat some of these conditions.

Septic Arthritis in Cattle

Septic arthritis is the most common reason for swelling in one or more joints in younger animals.

Pathogenesis

Septic arthritis results when microorganisms enter the joint cavity either because of sepsis or through penetrating wounds. The resulting inflammatory process in the joint increases joint effusion. Persistent infections result in further damage to the joint.

Diagnosis

Septic arthritis typically causes severe, acute pain and lameness. The affected joint(s) are often swollen, warm, and painful to the touch. In distal limbs when a single joint is affected, the process is typically traumatic in origin. Polyarthritis typically has a systemic origin (ie, navel ill, mycoplasma), and the inciting cause should be determined. Arthrocentesis of synovial fluid can be used to confirm the diagnosis.

Prevention

Prevention of septic arthritis should focus on preventing sepsis and penetrating injuries near the joints. Common causes of sepsis in calves include mycoplasma and navel infections.

Treatment

Treatment of septic arthritis requires treating the sepsis, as well as managing the inflammation and pain. Extended administration of antimicrobials and NSAIDs, along with joint lavage, is necessary.

Muscular Ruptures in Cattle

Muscular ruptures are most commonly partial or complete tears of the gastrocnemius or fibularis tertius muscle.

Pathogenesis

Muscular ruptures are typically acute because of direct trauma or physical exertion when the animal attempts to get up while down for another condition.

Diagnosis

Animals with a gastrocnemius tear typically are unable to rise, and the hock touches the ground when the animal attempts to get up. Animals with a fibularis tertius tear typically can flex the stifle with the hock fully extended. Typically, the affected muscle is firm and swollen.

Prevention

Prevention of muscular injuries should focus on providing solid footing, especially for down animals.

Treatment

Treatment of muscular injuries, especially gastrocnemius tears, is unrewarding. Typically, euthanasia is the most appropriate course of action. In young animals with tears of the fibularis tertius, restricting activity may enable recovery.

For More Information

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  • Jacobs C, Beninger C, Hazlewood GS, Orsel K, Barkema HW. Effect of footbath protocols for prevention and treatment of digital dermatitis in dairy cattle: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Prev Vet Med. 2019;164:56-71. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2019.01.011 

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